Economics Assignment

ECONOMICS ASSIGNMENT For a market of your choice, keep track of the spot or share price fluctuations during a period of at least two years. Prepare a report of approximately 3000 words, for each market, discussing in detail the multiple forces (interesting developments) responsible for the trends. Tuesday 24 May 2011 Table of Contents Executive Summary Executive Summary In analysing the consumer market, we have chosen the share prices of two JSE listed companies, namely SABMiller and Rainbow Chicken which belong to the beverages and food producer’s sub-sectors respectively. Our two-year analysis is for the period March 2009 to May 2011. We will explore how Rainbow Chicken fared relative to its nearest competitor – Astral Foods. SABMiller allowed us to expand our thinking and methodology as the company also has a dual-listing on the London Stock Exchange. Its three closest competitors Heineken, Anheuser-Busch InBev and Carlsberg Breweries have foreign listings. It stands to reason, therefore, that we begin our assignment with an overview of the global context in which both companies operated in the period under review. The aftermath of the recession and changes in global economic indicators like the ZAR:USD exchange rate and the price of Brent crude oil will be examined. What we found particularly interesting was the resilience of both company’s share prices in the challenging global economic climate. We mention the factors that insulated each share from the global downturn. We then turn our attention to South Africa’s economic environment and examine the extent to which the foregoing global factors impacted on South Africa’s macroeconomic policy landscape. The two variables that we pay particular attention to are the local repo and CPI rates. We address the extent to which changes to these local variables impacted on the share prices of SABMiller and Rainbow Chicken. As mentioned in the first paragraph, our analyses consider the industries in which both companies operate by comparing their share prices with those of their nearest competitors. Our company analyses focus on internal considerations and the strategic objectives detailed in SABMiller’s and Rainbow’s annual reports for the 2009 and 2010 financial year ends. In our analyses of each company’s share price, we remain mindful of the fact that, although not directly responsible for the share’s daily performance, the objectives and calibre of management nevertheless impact on the share price. We conclude each analysis with a justifiable prediction of the expected trajectory of each company’s share price. The concentric eclipses in the diagram below depict the logical progression of our assignment’s structure, beginning with the outer-most eclipse. The diagram also shows the inter-relatedness of each eclipse relative to the other and how it is impossible to isolate the effects of one from the other. This reinforces the aphorism that: â€Å"in Economics everything is related to everything else; and usually in more ways than one. † The Global Environment [pic] Source: www. eia. doe. gov The price of Brent crude oil has been steady at an average level of $70 to $80 a barrel until November 2010. Since December 2010, the oil price has been rising, reaching a peak of $120 / barrel in April 2011. This has been partly due to uprisings in the Arab world, which holds the majority of global oil reserves. The oil price affects domestic inflation as fuel and energy are a major component of South Africa’s CPI basket. The price of petrol, which is based on oil prices, also raises logistical costs. SABMiller and Rainbow paid more to transport their products in the December 2010 to May 2011 period as a result of the spike in oil prices. It stands to reason that these higher transportation costs would be passed on to consumers as higher product prices by both companies. pic] Source: www. xe. com The graph above shows that the Rand has been strengthening relative to the US Dollar from 1USD:10ZAR to 1USD:6,3ZAR between March 2009 and May 2011. The strong rand has had a favourable impact on our terms of trade as can be seen from the self-explanatory graph below which depicts the Balance of Payments. The company analyses below reveal that SABMiller exports and imports a number of its brands across the world. Rainbow Chicken imports the soy component of its chicken feed wholly from Argentina. The rand’s strength impacts on both companies’ performances (and hence) their share prices favourably. [pic] [pic] Source: www. resbank. co. za The South African Environment Domestic interest rates [pic] Source: www. resbank. co. za The graph above shows that the Reserve Bank’s stance to monetary policy has been expansionary. This is shown by the gradual decline in the repo rate from 9,5% in March 2009 to its current level of 5,5% in May 2011. The Reserve Bank’s mandate is to keep the inflation rate within its target band of 3% to 6% and it uses the repo rate as the instrument with which to impact inflation. The Reserve Bank’s lowering of the repo rate is due to the CPI breaching its upper target limit of 6%. This is shown in the graph below. There is a positive relationship between the repo rate and CPI. It stands to reason, therefore, that the gradual lowering of the repo rate would be accompanied by a decline in the CPI rate. This is indeed the case. However, because of lags, the effect of a fall in the repo rate on the inflation rate is not reflected immediately and the CPI remains significantly above the upper limit. A fall in the repo rate eases pressure on consumers by raising their disposal incomes since they, theoretically, spend less on their credit commitments. All things being equal, this would raise the sales volumes of SABMiller’s and Rainbow’s products. Domestic Inflation [pic] Source: www. statssa. gov. za The graph above depicts the trend in inflation. It is clear that although the inflation rate has been on a downward trajectory (following the lowering of the repo rate) it was in breach of the upper limit of 6% from March 2009 to Oct 2009. It was within the target band in November 2009 but breached the upper limit again between December 2009 and February 2010. The latter breach is attributable to the market’s inflation expectations because of the steep increase in electricity tariffs during this period (www. eskom. co. za). As mentioned previously, the biggest components of South Africa’s CPI basket are food and fuel and the graphs below will be used to explain the impact of inflation on SABMiller’s and Rainbow’s performance specifically. CPI indicator relevant to SAB Miller pic] Source: www. statssa. gov. za This graph shows that inflation for alcoholic beverages has not only been consistently higher than the upper limit of the inflation target band, it has also been significantly higher than the country’s inflation rate. This is due to the fact that a major component of the price of alcohol is a â€Å"sin tax†, which is imposed by the finance ministry, because of the relative ly inelastic nature of the price elasticity of demand for alcohol as well as irresponsible and excessive consumption patterns. For some consumers, even a sharp increase in the price of alcoholic beverages does not result in a fall in the quantity demanded. There would, in all likelihood, be a shift away from the consumption of relatively more expensive alcoholic beverages towards relatively cheaper alcohol – not a complete cessation in the consumption of alcohol. This is one of the reasons that SABMiller’s share price has shown steady gains relative to the market. CPI indicator relevant to Rainbow Chicken [pic] Source: www. statssa. gov. za Consumer food price inflation decelerated sharply from December 2010. It is also interesting to note, that between January 2009 and January 2010, the prices of wheat fell by 24,58%, maize by 22,57% and sunflower seeds by 18,49% (www. finweek. co. za) Decreases in the prices of these staple foods has a positive impact on the poor as they spend 33,4% of their incomes on food; versus the rich who spend a mere 2,6% of their incomes on food. Poor people consume relatively more chicken than red meat because the latter is relatively more expensive. Chicken is the cheapest form of protein in South Africa and demand for it is high (www. astralfoods. com). Furthermore, the above staple foods are used as chicken feed which is a significant input cost for Rainbow Chicken, therefore the company has had cost savings because of bumper crops and the consequent price decreases in these commodities. The table on the following page clearly accounts for the nearly vertical decline in the graph above which shows food price inflation. [pic] Source: www. resbank. co. za GDP – South Africa [pic] [pic] Source: www. statssa. gov. za The graphs above show that South Africa was in a recession in 2009, as defined, because of the two consecutive quarters of negative GDP growth. Our recovery from the global recession was due to the fact that we had a low exposure to the sub-prime market crisis that was responsible for the global meltdown. Our banking and macroeconomic policies remain robust. The growth in the economy from the third quarter of 2009 is also due to infrastructural investments that were made for the 2010 Soccer World Cup as well as South Africa’s contributions to the BRIC emerging markets bloc – especially our trade with China. It is expected that our formal inclusion to the BRICS nations since April 2011 will maintain the upward trend in GDP (www. lobalsherpa. org). Positive GDP growth has a positive impact on the performance of SABMiller’s and Rainbow’s shares. In a boom everyone does well. SABMiller, in particular, has a presence in all five BRICS nations and is poised for growth as emerging market economies have overtaken developed economies in their contributions to global GDP. We now examine SABMiller’s s hare price in more detail and then turn our attention to Rainbow Chicken in light of the foregoing discussions on the global and local environments. Analysis of SABMiller pic] SABMiller is a global operation covering 75 countries on six continents and employing over 70 000 people. Its portfolio of businesses is divided into six regions and is well balanced between developed and emerging markets. Between them, the businesses produce over 200 different brands and sell 213 million hectoliters of lager a year. Since listing on the London Stock Exchange 10 years ago the company has grown substantially and has a market capitalisation of ZAR 419,837,700,000 on the JSE and GBP 36,099,310,000 on the LSE. The company’s markets range from developed economies such as the USA to the fast growing BRICS economies (SABMiller Annual Report, 2009). SABMiller is also the number one bottler of soft drinks for The Coca Cola Company. The breweries market can be seen as oligopolistic in nature since SABMiller and its three main competitors (Heineken, Anheuser-Busch InBev and Carlsberg) are the dominant players in the market and have significant market share amongst them. The oligopolistic market structure has a positive impact on the company’s operations and share price performance. In North America, SABMiller (through its strategic partners) is the second-largest brewer in the United States and owns nearly 30% of the US beer market. In Latin America, it is the number one brewer by market share. In the majority of the ten European countries in which it operates, the company is the number one or number two brewer by market share. The same holds for Africa and Asia. In the 2009 annual report Mayer Kahn, the Chairman of the Board, stated that the global brewing industry was expected to continue to consolidate and that participation in industry consolidation provides opportunities to enter growth markets and to create value from scale benefits. The graph below shows SABMiller’s share price relative to its three main competitors. It is clear that all four companies’ trajectories have moved in tandem but Carlsberg’s share price has significantly taken the lead with SABMiller in second place. At the turn of the century, the top 10 brewers accounted for just over one-third of global beer sales volumes. The past decade has seen a rapid consolidation, resulting in the top four brewers – Anheuser-Busch InBev, SABMiller, Heineken and Carlsberg – accounting for almost 50% of beer sales volumes and up to 75% of the global profit pool. (SABMiller Annual Report, 2010) [pic] Source: www. heineken. com Mr Kahn attributes the company’s good results (in both 2009 and 2010) to the operational strengths of the businesses and the power of their leading local brands. He concedes that even though SABMiller was not immune to the global crisis, beer is a fairly resilient product which placed the company in a better position than many to weather the storm. He goes on to say: â€Å"Thanks, partly, to our long experience of emerging markets, we are used to operating under difficult conditions. If we look back ten years to our London stock market listing, it is worth remembering that the Asian currency crisis at that time had shaken investor confidence in emerging markets and that the outlook was far from encouraging. Nevertheless, we prospered and grew and achieved the international expansion that our listing was intended to facilitate. Ten years on, our geographic spread is proving to be an advantage in that different countries are affected by the crisis at different rates and to differing degrees. So while demand in Europe has dropped sharply, countries in emerging markets such as Africa and Asia have fared relatively well despite falling back from the high – one might say unsustainable – rates of growth of recent years. † SABMiller Annual Report, 2009 In short, SABMiller’s diverse spread of businesses, strong market positions, and a portfolio of leading brands mitigated against the risks and negative consequences of the global downturn and contributed to the steady upward momentum in the share price. In response to the mismatch between the supply of, and demand for, certain brewing and packaging raw materials in Africa, the company is increasingly using locally grown crops such as sorghum and cassava to produce affordable brands. This is done to minimise supply shortages and the price volatility of key raw material inputs. Continued robust pricing and productivity enhancements offset increased commodity costs (SABMiller Annual Report, 2010). It comes as no surprise, therefore, that the combination of the above factors resulted in a steady upward trend in the company’s share prices on both the London and Johannesburg bourses in the period under review as seen in the graphs below. [pic][pic] Source: www. sabmiller. com In 2010, Mr Kahn had similar good news for investors, citing the same reasons as for 2009. However he mentions the company’s management team as being a key contributor to the positive results: This year, in addition, we have benefited from management’s ability to reduce costs and selectively increase prices in order to maximise revenues†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Source: SABMiller Annual Report, 2010 In the third paragraph of our Executive Summary, we mentioned that the management of any company is not responsible for the share price. However, in fulfilling its primary objective of maximising shareholder value, the credibility of and strategies employed by management invariably have an impact on the share price. It would appear that the management and directorship of SABMiller are market-friendly. The members of the executive team are representative of each of the continents in which the company operates; with Mr Cyril Ramaphosa and Dr Dambisa Moyo as the notable representatives for Africa. Other market-friendly strategies include the December 2009 announcement that 8. 45% of the shares in SABMiller’s South African subsidiary, The South African Breweries Ltd (SAB), would be placed under Black ownership as part of its commitment to Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment in South Africa. This transaction created 40,000 new shareholders among SAB employees and qualifying retailers. The deal also created a charitable foundation that holds 18% of the shares that were issued under the transaction. The dividend income will be used for the benefit of the wider South African community (SABMiller Annual Report, 2010). The company also capitalised on the strength of emerging markets (particularly in China and Africa) by channeling its growth strategies to these markets. â€Å"Globally, the beer market grew by 1. 5% in 2010, led by a continuing strong performance in Asia, Africa and Latin America. China grew by 6. 5%, Africa by 3. 1% and Latin America by almost 3%. Western Europe continued the trend of declining beer volumes, driven by a shift in consumption to other beverages and the decline of on-premise consumption. † Source: SABMiller Annual Report, 2010 In the 2010 financial year the company acquired four new breweries in China, invested in new breweries in Tanzania, Mozambique, Angola and Southern Sudan and carried out expansions and upgrades in Uganda and Zambia. The trends in the graphs depicting SABMiller’s share price on both the London and Johannesburg Securities’ Exchanges (given above) require no further explanation. With good management being both a contributory factor to and a consequence of the share’s strong performance, it is reasonable to conclude that the positive momentum will continue. [pic] Analysis of Rainbow Chicken [pic] Rainbow Chicken Limited is the largest processor and marketer of chicken in South Africa. It is a fully integrated broiler producer that breeds and rears its own livestock which it feeds from its own feed mills. Rainbow processes, distributes and markets fresh, frozen, value-added and further-processed chicken. The company has a market capitalisation of ZAR 6 124 893 000 009 was a very challenging year for the South African poultry industry, both locally and globally. The local chicken industry was negatively impacted by the fall in demand due to the recession. An oversupply by local producers and increased imports due to the strong rand also added to the industry’s woes. These difficult market conditions were a further test of Rainbow’s differen tiated brand strategy, which through its foodservice and consumer brands, seeks more consistent, profitable and sustainable business (Rainbow Chicken Annual Report, 2009). Despite these challenges, Rainbow managed to deliver an acceptable overall performance. Positive performance, like a rally in the share price, is a function of several variables and while we can make inferences about the correlation between the two, we make no such inferences about their causality. Like SABMiller, Rainbow’s Black Economic Empowerment transaction (which was concluded in July 2008) was market-friendly and boosted the company’s share price. Rainbow provided vendor financing for a 15% equity stake that was issued to a consortium that was constituted by its employees, Imbewu Consortium, Ikamva Labantu, and Mrs M Nhlanhla, a non-executive director. The BBBEE transaction resulted in the share price rallying from R12. 0 to R16. 80 in the latter period of the second quarter of the 2009 financial year as shown in the graph on the following page. 2010 was an equally challenging year for Rainbow but its effects were mitigated by South Africa’s steady recovery from the recession, a lower interest rate and inflationary environment. Maize prices d eclined since their peak in July 2008. The global financial crisis caused a dramatic decrease in the demand for maize, improving the previously dangerously low US and global maize stock situations to such an extent that international prices fell sharply from their record levels. Rainbow Chicken, Annual Report, 2010). The fall in maize prices, which is a major component in chicken feed, resulted in a reduction in the company’s input costs which boosted the bottom line. Local producers added significant production capacity for wheat, grain and soy over the past five years. Rainbow imports the soya component of its chicken feed from Argentina and it has a significant FOREX exposure. The strong rand, however, in the period under review, has been in the company’s favour. The company’s 2010 annual report reflected acceptable profit margins. In both 2009 and during 2010, the company’s share price maintained its upward momentum as reflected in the graph below. [pic] |Key Features – Rainbow Chicken Share Price | |Year |Low |High | |2009 |11500 |16800 | |2010 |15900 |16900 | The graph and table above confirm the findings in the preceding paragraphs. Although the difference between the year’s highest share prices is negligible, South Africa’s economic recovery may be gleaned from the fact that the lowest share price for 2010 was 4400c above the 2009 low. Consumer’s disposable incomes were higher in 2010 because of falling interest and inflation rates. Falling input costs and increased consumer demand increased the appetite for the company’s shares as investors’ expectations of earning better returns were supported. Other events that led to sharp movements in the company’s share price include the market’s speculative expectations immediately prior to the announcement of the group’s 2009 results. After the results were announced, the share price dropped to R13. 90 because of the 39. 6% decline in headline earnings. The reason for this decline in earnings can be attributed to the company’s policy of buying feed products forward. The share price stabilised for the remainder of 2010 due to an increase in the multitude of families that joined the ranks of South Africa’s middle class. As the middle class grows in size, so the taste of chicken diversifies allowing entrepreneurs to come up with new ways of marketing chicken to end consumers. We now turn our attention to Rainbow’s competitor, Astral Foods, to get a better idea of the South African poultry industry before making conclusions about how justifiable a continued rally in Rainbow’s share price is. Astral Foods is Rainbow Chicken’s nearest competitor. The company holds investments in subsidiary and joint venture companies. Its primary activities are animal feed pre-mixes, the manufacturing of animal feeds, broiler genetics, the production and sale of day-old broiler chicks and hatching eggs, integrated breeder and broiler production operations, abattoirs and the sale and distribution of various key poultry brands. Its current market capitalisation is R5,5 bn (www. moneyweb. co. za) Despite a 5% drop in sales volumes, revenue for Astral Foods’ poultry division increased by 13% for the 2009 financial year. (Astral Foods Annual Report, 2009). The market was neutral about the appointment of Chris Schutte as the Chief Executive Officer, effective 1 May 2009. The share price was also not responsive to the appointment of Daan Ferreira as the Financial Director. This may be because it was not perceived to be mindful of BBBEE. The improvement in Astral Foods’ revenue for the 2010 period was largely attributable to a sustained growth in volume. The volume growth was on the back of improved production results supported by better poultry health status. Depressed consumer spending, together with higher levels of imports and high local stock levels, contributed to vigorous promotional activity with prices at levels below historical levels. Reduced feeding costs during the period countered the effects of lower poultry selling prices. A lengthy period of industrial action at Earlybird Standerton negatively impacted the company’s share performance. (Astral Foods Annual Report 2010) |[pic] | |The graph above shows the steadily upward trend in Astral Foods share price. Not surprisingly, it follows a similar pattern to Rainbow | |Chicken’s share price – with pronounced sell-offs in the first and second quarters of 2009 and improvements thereafter. This pattern | |provides comfort because of the consistency of both company’s responsiveness to events in the poultry industry. It would be concerning if | |the companies had different trajectories. The consensus amongst analysts is that the South African poultry industry is poised for | |significant growth given that the price of chicken has risen by 30 per cent year-on-year while the cost of feed has come down. We | |anticipate that Rainbow’s share price will maintain its upward trend. | | | BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Astral Foods Limited Annual Report, 2009. www. astralfoods. com 2. EIA Independent Statistics and Analysis, US Energy Information Administration, www. eia. doe. gov 3. www. eskom. co. za 4. www. finweek. co. za/Economy/Food-inflation-still-a-concern-20100301 5. www. globalsherpa. org/china-africa-brics 6. www. heineken. com 7. www. moneyweb. o. za 8. Rainbow Chicken Limited Annual Report, 2009 and 2010, www. rainbowchicken. co. za 9. Reserve Bank Quarterly Bulletin March 2011,www. resbank. co. za 10. SABMiller PLC Annual Report, 2009, www. sabmiller. com 11. SABMiller PLC Annual Report, 2010, www. sabmiller. com 12. Statistics South Africa, Statistical release P0141, www. statssa. gov. za 13. www. xe. com [pic] ———————– Economics Assignment 2011 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT LOCAL ENVIRONMENT INDUSTRY / COMPETITORS COMPANY SHARE PRICE

Discuss the Biological Approach in Psychology Essay

Discuss the biological approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other approach in your answer. (12 marks) The biological approach focuses on both the physiological and evolutionary aspects which explain human behaviour. The causal level of analysis incorporates physiological explanations, such as the effect of nerves and hormones on behaviour. According to biological psychologists, behaviour is controlled by the nervous system, which consists of the central nervous system (the brain and the spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the surrounding nerves), which itself includes the autonomic nervous system that controls automatic processes such as heart rate and the fight or flight syndrome. Within the central nervous system, neurons communicate with each other via sending chemical impulses, neurotransmitters, across synapses. Biopsychologists believe that these chemical processes in the brain directly influence human behaviour. Too much or too little of these chemicals ca n result in over-activity or under-activity in various parts of the brain; this alters thoughts, emotions and behaviour. For example, a link has been made between excessive dopaminergic activity in the brain and the incidence of schizophrenia. Pearlson et al (1993) used Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans and found a substantial increase in D2 receptors in patients with schizophrenia. Seeman et al (1993) also used PET scans, finding six times the density of D4 receptors in the brains of schizophrenic individuals. A limitation of such studies is the idea of cause and effect; for example, it is unclear whether the increase in dopamine receptors causes schizophrenia or is a result of the neuroleptic drugs taken. Yet, Pearlson’s study was carried out on individuals who had not been exposed to neuroleptic drugs, which therefore rules out cause and effect. Neuroimaging studies are able to study the structure and functioning of the brain, and have the advantage of being non-invasive. Researchers have shown how behaviour can be affected by different levels of sex hormones, for example increased tes tosterone has been linked to aggression and increased risk-taking. In forensic psychology, Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality suggested that individuals who offend are high on the extroversion dimension and seek constant stimulation and autonomic arousal from their environment. These individuals are also said to be high on the neuroticism dimension, with high anxiety levels and an emotionally unstable central nervous system. Their nervous system reacts strongly to aversive stimuli and, as a result, these individuals cannot effectively learn socially appropriate behaviours. Eysenck’s theory is criticised for inconsistencies between criminal activity and extroversion. Zuckerman (1969) also argued that environmental stimulation may be sought as a result of boredom, where there is increased arousal. Behaviourists also emphasise the role of the environment as a determining factor of behaviour in the nature versus nurture debate. The behaviourist approach states that all individuals are born with ‘blank slates’ (tabula rasa), with behaviour being learnt through the process of conditioning, past experiences and the environment. With reference to the forensic psychology topic, neo-behaviourists argue that criminal behaviour is learnt by observing and imitating the behaviour of role models in the environment, e.g. peers, celebrities, novel characters. The imitation of aggressive behaviour is most clearly shown in studies conducted by Bandura et al (1963), in which children who observed models performing aggressive acts on a Bobo doll later displayed this same behaviour. However this experiment is criticised for being open to demand characteristics so the children knew what was expected of them, which confounded the results (Cumberbatch, 1992). In contrast, the functional level of analysis focuses on evolutionary and genetic theories of behaviour. In the 1800s, Charles Darwin postulated the evolutionary theory which put forward the idea of survival and reproduction as an important feature of behaviour in all species. In what he called the ‘survival of the fittest’, Darwin suggested that through th e process of natural selection animals with particular characteristics, as a result of possessing advantageous alleles, will survive. However, those with maladaptive genes cannot adapt to changes in environmental conditions, so will die or become extinct. Dowling (1994) stated that this process depends on three principles: species diversity, interaction and the spread of a species as a result of differential amplification. Sexual selection is another component of Darwin’s research, which explains the best strategies adopted for passing on genes to offspring. Moreover, there are problems with Darwin’s theory such as his attempts to generalise animal behaviour to the way in which humans interact in their environment. However, he has presented compelling evidence which is very scientific in its approach and methodology. Furthermore, contrary to Darwin’s evolutionary idea of survival of an individual, Dawkins (1976) suggested that the survival of the genes is more important. Schizophrenia twin studies have found a 46% concordance rate for monozygotic twins compared with a 14% concordance for dizygo tic twins. This high concordance suggests the contribution of genotype to the onset of schizophrenia, yet the 40% discordancy indicates that environment must play a role in the development of this condition. Moreover, localisation of function explains how different parts of the brain have particular functions; for example, the amygdala has been linked to aggression. A more famous example is the HM case study, in which an operation on his brain, in order to treat severe epilepsy, resulted in anterograde amnesia. The removal of HM’s hippocampus was therefore linked to his amnesia upon recovery, where he could not form new memories. Chromosomes are made up of genes which produce a phenotype, dominant or recessive. Abnormalities in chromosomes have been found through biological research. For example, Kleinfelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome both comprise an atypical chromosomal pattern which, in turn, produces abnormal behaviour. Male individuals with Kleinfelter’s syndrome have the XXY chromosomal pattern, in which they possess an extra X chromosome; symptoms include broader hips and reduced fertility rates. Turner’s syndrome involves the absence of an X chromosome in females, resulting in webbed necks and memory deficits. Furthermore, criminal research has found an incidence rate of 0.1% XYY pattern in the ge neral population, with 1.5% XYY in the prison population, suggesting that atypical chromosomal patterns cause criminal behaviour. Yet, further studies have failed to confirm this link; Wilkin et al (1976) found that only 12 men in a large sample of 4500 males had the extra Y chromosome, with none being an offender. This theory was consequently refuted. The biological approach as provided a lot of evidence for the biological basis of behaviour, yet it tends to be deterministic, seeing free will as an illusion. The humanistic approach, however, believes that we are active agents and able to choose our behaviour. In addition, the biological approach is reductionist and dehumanising as it reduces all behaviour to biological processes, such as genes and neurochemicals. In contrast, both the humanistic and psychodynamic approaches are holistic to some extent. The humanistic approach emphasises the whole person and whole subjective experience, whilst the psychodynamic approach concentrates on the individual’s life. A method used in much of biological research is the use of laboratory studies. These are high in control, yet lack ecological validity as the findings cannot be generalised outside such a controlled environment. Similar to the biological approach, the behaviourist approach uses scientific methods which are falsifiable and objective. For example, operant conditioning was studied by Skinner in a series of experiments with rats who, when by chance, pressed a lever received a pellet of food. Through positive reinforcement, they continued to press the lever in order to increase the likelihood of the desired response being repeated (receiving food). However, the use of animal studies means that findings may lack generalisability to human behaviour; although, Darwin would disagree as human and animal anatomy and behaviour are seen as similar. Debates that arise in biological research include the concept of determinism. This is shown in biological research as free will is often ignored and consequences are seen as beyond human control. Biological theories are reductionist as they attempt to explain human behaviour by breaking complex processes down into fundamental biological ones. This approach is criticised for focusing only on the nature side of the nature vs. nurture debate; it is believed that behaviour is innate and therefore environmental factors and cognitive mediating processes are ignored. Furthermore, the biological approach is nomothetic as the features that people have in common are investigated and general laws of behaviour are applied to groups. Empirical studies are mainly objective as they observe phenomena rather than focusing on subjective experiences, like behaviourists tend to do. Yet this is also a limitation as it is argued that biopsychologists dehumanise and neglect the importance of experiences. Humanistic psychologists argue that the subjective experience is important as we are motivated to achieve self-actualisation (Maslow, 1987). Practical applications of the biological approach have been useful and effective in society. Drug therapy has been developed in order to treat illnesses and disorders, such as schizophrenia. Anti-psychotic drugs include risperidone, clozapine and chlorpromazine. Atypical drugs, clozapine and risperidone, also treat negative symptoms of schizophrenia. For depression, drugs include Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) and Tricyclic anti-depressants. Bipolar disorder can be treated with Lithium Carbonate, which is toxic but, unlike the drugs for unipolar depression, they treat the manic phases of the disorder also. Where drug therapy may not work in specific cases, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used; as this involves inducing an electric shock on the patient’s brain this therapy can be seen as unethical, especially in cases where this treatment is given against a patient’s wishes. However, it is still used today and has proven to be effective. Drug therapy itself has been criticised for only prevention and not curing symptoms. Side effects, such as clozapine lowering the white blood count, and the long period it takes for an effect can both result in a lower adherence to this particular treatment so relapse is common. A problem arises when schizophrenic patients may discontinue use due to the side effects and long time to feel any effect. Invasive and non-invasive techniques are used to identify which brain areas may responsible for types of behaviour. Using invasive techniques, such as lesions and abrasions in brain surgery, biological psychologists have identified Broca’s area which controls the production of speech. In contrast, behaviourists tend to use cognitive-behavioural therapy for illnesses and disorders, such as depression, which has been found to be more effective than medication (Elkin et al, 1985). In conclusion, the biological approach has contributed a huge amount to how we explain human behaviour. There has been much empirical research and the applications have enabled individuals to live normal lives that they had previously not been able to. However it is more advisable to take an interactionist approach as the role of nurture must be considered where behaviour is concerned.

Response: Doing Fieldwork Among the Yanomamo Essay

Shaki, or Napoleon A. Chagnon’s 15 month enculturation with the Yanomamo tribe, Bisaasi-teri is characterized by fear, discomfort, loneliness, nosiness, and invaluable experiences through relationships and modesty about human culture. Chagnon documents the experience through the struggle and discovery surrounding his proposed research, as his lifestyle gradually comes in sync with the natural functions of his community. Much of his focus and time was consumed by identification of genealogical records, and the establishment of informants and methods of trustworthy divulgence. Marriage, sex, and often resulting violence are the foremost driving forces within Yanomamo, and everything that we consider part of daily routine is completely unknown and inconsequential to them. Traveling between neighboring tribes, he draws conclusions about intertribal relations, especially concerning marriage and raiding. Chagnon deals with cultural complexity that takes time to decipher, and in process, potential risk. Confronted with seemingly trivial situations, they often become unexpected phenomena and Chagnon’s adherence to documentation is amazing. He encounters personal epiphanies that I find intriguing, related to privacy and hygiene. This report becomes an inspiring document of an extreme anthropologic lifestyle as much as it is a cultural essay. Few articles capture my attention like this one did. I found myself evolving in relation to the paralleled maturation of both cultures. Merely sitting on my bed, I developed a detachment from the tendency to contrast my knowledge of culture from the pure consideration of theirs. My affinity for this type of anthropologic study stems from my adoration of travel. Fortunate to travel from a younger age I have been enamored by being dropped in a stew of culture. I have vacationed to European and Caribbean countries with family and tapped into the tourism that runs the world of wealth of professional boredom. School programs have allowed me to take advantage of education abroad, and I have ventured to new personal frontiers on my own accord. This range of travel experiences paired with my father’s dissatisfaction with our society’s functioning, has planted in me a fertilizer of criticism and drive for exploration. I have always vaguely understood the role of anthropologists, yet I never considered the connection between their professional training, field work, and my desire to be culture-dexterous as a viable profession. Ironically, as I confront a rather innate realm of product design in my studies, ethnography has been revealed to me as a significant role in my prospective career. All of the most memorable events involve the human to human interactions that force questioning on tradition, moral, and agenda. I assume that the article is not intended to inspire others to perform this type of research, but to allow people to consider their lives for just enough time to seriously judge their preoccupations. The lifestyle which Chagnon is forced to adopt appears crude, unhealthy; nearly unacceptable for our standards. Personally, I am thrilled at the idea of enduring these hardships as true troubles of human life come to light. It is easy to trace Chagnon’s account through his growth and adoption of their traditions, lifestyles and moral codes. As an American, my response is to first consider these adoptions, yet the Bisaasi-teri proved to be just as clever and interested in understanding and adopting the ways of â€Å"Shaki† (Chagnon’s nickname meaning: pesky, noisome bee). Many natives were infatuated with the goods that were brought with him; evoking curiosity and incessant ploys to steal or seduce him into sharing them. This became a tool which rivaled Chagnon’s incessant pestering about their lineage, which discussion proved to be a strict cultural stigma. Chagnon did well to manipulate their desires to extract necessary information. It is difficult to judge the ethicality of doing so, based on no knowledge of what was done with the genealogical data after collected. This is a breakdown where the AAA (American Anthropological Association) might see an opportunity for ethical issues concerning the method of information attained. It is admirable to see Chagnon’s efforts remain critical as he builds relationships with the Yanomamo People. One relationship in particular is very interesting because of contradictions on previous observations and statements. Chagnon stated, â€Å"I would be bitterly disappointed that my erstwhile friend thought no more of me than to finesse our personal relationship exclusively with the intention of getting at my locked up possessions, and my depression would hit new lows every time I discovered this. † He observed for an extended period of time that friendship was based on lasting debts to be reimbursed, often at unequal ratios. This behavior rang true not only of him, but of Rerebawa, who married into the tribe. It becomes interesting to consider that his value was that of material objects and debts, much like we experience in some parts of American culture. As Chagnon dove deeper into his pursuit of genealogical data, he befriended Rerebawa due to their shared alienated positions and was able to surpass language barriers and misunderstandings. Return trips have proven that this friendship is solidified in past experience and must be extremely exciting to build such connections. Statistical data and relevance of collected genealogical date were not presented in this essay, however, the overall emotion and importance of cross-cultural understanding is well addressed. It is an exciting opportunity to be able to so definitely define current cultures, as forms of documentation have been developed in our society. In turn, it is amazing that cultures of such different developments, resources, and agendas can exist simultaneously. Documents like this should be a source of inspiration for many to explore the world as a human, not as an American. Hopefully, this idea will prompt efforts of coexistence, sustainability, and the pursuit of vitality for all life.

Proposing a Solution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Proposing a Solution - Essay Example obe, with regard to the production of energy, its use as well as energy policies, are crucial determinants of sustainability of the present and future ecosystems and resources on the surface of the earth. Fracking presents a potential danger to the integrity of groundwater and ecosystem. The chemicals used in the fluid used for fracturing have the propensity to leak and contaminate groundwater. Besides, it has been pointed out by critics that fracking uses enormous amount of freshwater, which poses a big threat to the availability of freshwater for human consumption. The United States remains at a quagmire owing to the fact that natural gas is a crucial energy source in the country. This paper explores possible solutions to fracking, which is a threat to ecosystem and groundwater. Fracking also known as hydraulic fracturing refers to is used to extract natural gas from rocks by pumping pressurized chemical-laced water into a well to shatter the rocks. Critics assert that the consequences of Fracking (Hydraulic fracturing) far much outweigh its benefits. Fracking does not only produce natural gas, which is hazardous in terms of global warming, but also its environmental impacts raise eyebrows. It also imposes negative social impacts on the society. Fracking contributes to air pollution, water contamination as well as wastage (The Center for Media and Democracy). Fracking can weaken the ground and make it susceptible to earthquakes. This is a health hazard that must be well taken care of in order to prevent potential risks that come with drilling too many holes in an area. Fracking is a common practice in the oil and gas industry in the United States. In Texas alone, â€Å"though the total number of wells drilled for oil & gas may well top 20,000 over the next few years† (Wittmeyer Para 10). Fracking comes with both positive and negative impacts. From one point, it is considered crucial for the growth of economy. Drilling industry is perceived as one of the main

Theorists have argued that in order for service operations to be Essay - 1

Theorists have argued that in order for service operations to be successful, they must adopt a production line approach to their delivery - Essay Example According to Gallouj and Weinstein (1997), discretion of products is the core enemy to its order, standardization, and quality. A production line approach aims at emulating an assembly line in production in that no products are discretely prepared by the employee to reduce the risk of poor quality or differentiation as the employee will engineer the product according to his personal interests thus the outcome is highly unpredictable same as the customer response to the same product. On the other hand using a completely automated and controlled production line approach will ensure consistency in all the products thus the consumers will always know what to expect in terms of quality and consistency. The advantages of a production-line approach to service operations include increased, efficient, cheap, high volume lucrative service operations and an increased satisfied customer database. According to Levitt (1976), if a service operation takes place with a management rationality and tactics copied from the manufacturing division it is bound to prosper because the manufacturing sector tends to think and act technologically while the rational service operations approach tends to look for solutions in the empowerment of the person giving the service. The conveyor belt/production line approach in service operation is considered as an old but effective method in increasing a films production as exhibited by its use in fields such as banking, airlines, and maintenance. This approach has been implemented in companies and firms such as IBM which produces computers for worldwide consumption, Citibank which is one of the biggest banks worldwide and McDonalds. These strategy approach is an efficient, capital-intensive system, automatic and discrete system that involves preplanning and routinizing employee activities to ensure consistency and simplicity of the process. Theorists argue that this approach

Describe Joe leap horn Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Describe Joe leap horn - Essay Example Thatcher came to Joe’s aid by seeking his help in investigating a heinous crime. Joe agrees to live the house and accompany Thatcher for the investigation. The chapter presents Joe Leaphorn as a complex character who accommodates the Navajo traditions and the western thinking. Joe studied at assimilationist schools where he specialized in cultural anthropology though he did not like it (Hillerman 68). He dropped his academic pursuit and joined Navajo Tribal Police to be close to his wife, Emma. He lacked a deep connection with Anasazi culture and adopted the western way of thinking. However, he respected the Navajo rituals and the society had immense respect for him. Apparently, the balance between respect for traditions and modernity depicts Joe as a fascinating character. The chapter presents Joe as an intuitive and dedicated cop who knew the terrain very well thus becoming significant in criminal investigations. Indeed, the chapter ends by showing how Joe Leap Horn succeede d in unearthing the mystery behind the Houk

Bodoni Typeface Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bodoni Typeface - Research Paper Example lopments and finally ended with the flat un bracketed typeface which were seen as extremely different from thick and thin strokes and contained a geometrical projection.The Bodoni and italics have been broadly used and have turned into a vital part of todays typographic gear, setting the stage in denoting the end of calligraphy and the begin of refined, sophisticated and organized printing. Surely, Giambattista Bodoni implied for his typefaces to be seen and read, and his endeavors were intended to be looked upon and acknowledged as show-stoppers instead of just correspondence (Clair 273). During the historical events, it was applied widely during the 18th century in the Italian books. Some computerized variants of Bodoni are said to be difficult to peruse because of "astonish" brought on by the exchanging thick and slender strokes, especially as the slim strokes are flimsy at little point sizes Clair (273). This happens when show adaptations are utilized at content sizes, and it is additionally valid for much show sort that is used at content sizes. Non-stunning renditions of Bodoni that are proposed to be used at content size are "Bodoni Old Face", upgraded for 9 focuses; ITC Bodoni 12 (for 12 centers); and ITC Bodoni 6 (for 6 focuses. Bodo has been applied in for a wide mixture of material, going from eighteenth-century Italian books to 1960s periodicals. It is also used in Hilton hotels on bar and menus within the hotels. During the 21century, the late way forms keep on being implemented as a part of publicizing while the early way forms are periodically utilized for fine book printing. Ted Hughes a UK Poet and Laureate also used Bodoni, during the periods of 1984–1998. In conclusion, currently the Typeface is not withstanding, in relation to the innovation accessibility digitally in this age. Bodoni is not simple to use (in the setting of pixels, eBooks, tablets et cetera) on account of its compelling differentiation in stroke weight and air transport

Style over Substance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Style over Substance - Essay Example However, for this to work effectively without swaying the viewing, specific regulations and understandings need to be considered. The effectiveness of televising the Presidential Debates is based on the capacity of giving viewers information about the persona, characteristics and ideologies of a given candidate. From a recent study, (Drew, 32), it was found that the Presidential Debates and the televised effects is what determined how citizens would vote. This pattern is one which was noted over a series of years, beginning in 1998. Each year, the vote became predictable by the debates and the responses which individuals had to these from the TV (Drew, 32). When looking at this information, it can be seen that voters rely on the information which they see on television based on the presidents, all which changes their outlook and decisions, specifically because of the knowledge received from the TV. The ability to receive knowledge about issues from the Presidential Debates is one whi ch should be considered not only with basic information, but also with the framework which is used. If citizens had the capacity of recognizing the models which were used with the debates, it would eliminate some of the abilities to change the mind of citizens in society.

SEE Business Services Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

SEE Business Services - Literature review Example However, various factors might result to this kind of scenario. For instance, the ever-changing business environment will push many business people and entrepreneurs to seeking more information on how they can utilize the business opportunity effectively. Because of this, the membership will increase because one of the objectives of the organization is to develop members. Additionally, the members have a forum to share their experiences and educate each other on various business and entrepreneurial ventures. Another major cause of increase in membership is favorable business environment that will encourage business hence the need for people to join the organization in order to gain knowledge. The driving force for this is that the organization provides an environment of sharing between members. Moreover, the organization encourages and celebrates outstanding business practices. Similarly, a favorable business environment will lead to an increased number of businesses and as a result, more people would want to join the organization in order to benefit and improve their business (Franz & Huemer 2007, p.6). Consequently, a favorable business environment will also lead to an increased number of entrepreneurs hence increasing the number of people who want to join the organization. ... Furthermore, the organization is bridging an information gap that exists in the market hence many want to join and benefit from the services that it offers. Another reason for the sharp increase in the number of people wanting to join the organization is the few number of organization that offer similar services. These are some of the courses for the increasing number of people that want to become members of the organization. However, for the organization to manage this increase effectively without negatively affecting the value of services it provides then it needs to develop smaller business development teams at the regional level that will deal with all the needs and concerns of members. These business development teams will perform a similar function as those in the head office in order to, effectively, manage the rising number of members without having a breakdown. However, they will not be in a position to make decisions. The management of the organization will be the sole cust odians of all rights and privileges. Additionally, these development teams will work as the head office directs. 2.0 Change Facilitation (a) Force Field Analysis Diagram +10 +5 0 -5 -10 \\\\\ The size of the arrow signifies strength i.e. the longer the arrow the stronger the force the shorter the arrow the weaker the force (Harris, 2002, p. 20). However, looking at the Field Force Analysis Diagram, there are several forces that the organization is facing. These forces are from all involved parties in the organization. For instance, the regional officers are advocating for decentralization in the organization so that more members can get services closer to them and faster than when the head office

Values of Frederick Douglass and Benjamin Franklin Essay

Values of Frederick Douglass and Benjamin Franklin - Essay Example But it soon became apparent that education was incompatible with chattel slavery, Mr. Auld wisely concluding that no educated Negro could ever truly be content with a life of perpetual bondage. When the wisdom of the statement became apparent, that self actualization in the interest of education would forever unfit him for slavery, young Frederick resolved to make that his mission. Most men, such as Benjamin Franklin of the prior century seek learning and knowledge that they might become something worthwhile. The man of ingenuity betters himself to become suitable for a future pursuit. But for Frederick Douglass, an ironic twist of his fate required that he educate himself to become unsuitable, that he might be useless in the life of menial drudgery under the overseers whip. Only by becoming worthless at his imposed vocation, could young Frederick succeed at becoming a self-made man. It was an unsuitability that would stay with him for the rest of his days and usher in his true lifes work. Douglass exemplified his commitment to progress, and self-improvement not only through his own advancement, but during his youth in Baltimore he aided in the education of others, such as his surrogate father whom he calls "the pious Lawson". He imparted instruction to other slaves that desired self-improvement, while at the same time receiving instruction from sympathetic white boys. For his entire life, Douglass wrestled with the common conceit among whites that African Americans are soulless animals without human feelings.

Personal Development self -managemnt and reflection Assignment

Personal Development self -managemnt and reflection - Assignment Example Section 1 There is a number of skills that one need to posses in order to successfully go through the Higher Education system. One of the most important personal skills that one should have is organizational skills, this skill is very important because it assist an individual to plan wisely and manage time well and bit any deadlines set .Having organization skills illustrates that one has a high level of intellectual ability and thus in a position to undertake a higher education course in any field. Determination is yet another skill that a student pursuing higher education should posses, determination is the zeal to keep on working hard until one achieves his/her goals ,.Determination will enable student to focus on achieving his career goals . Communication skills are needed to promote teamwork and collaboration, leadership skills and research skills ,without communication skills a student may not be in a position to smoothly carry out their business around the university .In moder n world the use of information technology and knowledge in numeracy is a must for any student pursuing higher education more over, a student should have problem solving skills, be in a to improve own learning and performance and should practice self discipline. Individually, I understand that I have some weaknesses in some of the skills mentioned; in particular I have gaps in organizational skills, zeal to improve my own learning and performance and I also have poor communication skills. Section 2 Action Plan for Academic skills needed to be attained Skill Target Action Timescale Success Criteria Recourses Organisational skills Excellent organizational skills Have a workable time table in place Become committed to my school work Time management Practice free and effective communication Listen to others Exercise leadership skills 6 months Neatness and clarity in my work Beating of deadlines Excellent grades Fellow students Lecturers Reading material Improving my own Learning and Perf ormance Excellent all round performance Consultation Teamwork Hard work Commitment Motivation 6 months Improved performance Involvement in most activities Reading material Fellow students Family Lecturers Communication Skills Excellent communication skills Stay focused Listen carefully See the point in other people messages Ask for assistance if needed Practice clarity 4 months Improved teamwork Excellent listening skills Excellent organisational skills Improved performance Reading material Fellow students Lecturers Action plan for the four subjects to be covered during the program Subject Target Action Time Frame Success Criteria Recourses Subject one to four Perform exemplarily in the respective subjects Get the core units Understand the topics Visit libraries and other resource centers Carry out in depth research on the subjects Submit all assignment on time Practice teamwork with class mates and lecturers During the course duration Good performance Good communication skills Libr aries, the internet , Fellow students Lecturers Section 3 Topic 1 Understanding this topic was easy for me, this is due to the exciting lecturer we had, and the lecturer was amusing besides being very knowledgeable. I ensured that I would not miss nay lecturer ,personally ,this topic has assisted me to develop my communication and interpersonal skill due to the high level of involvement

Poverty, the Never-ending Disease Essay Example for Free

Poverty, the Never-ending Disease Essay Poverty is a lack of goods and services needed to maintain a minimal adequate standard of living. The definition of the term adequate varies, however, with the general standard of living in a society and with public attitudes toward deprivation. No university accepted the definition of basic needs exists because poverty is a relative concept. In poorer countries it means living at the brink of subsistence, while in our country few improvised families confront starvation, although many suffer from undernourishment. Not everyone is born into a life of the rich and glamorous. Those who are fortunate enough know that they are very lucky to be in their position. Others however are totally in different situations. They need to fend for themselves and having meal is something which comes only once a day. Malnutrition is the obvious result of not consuming the right amount of food. This will lead to outbreaks of diseases but in poverty stricken countries there are no hospitals to cure this. Lacking infrastructure means lacking educational rights. People who are living in poverty cannot afford to send their children to school so this will mean an unclear future for their children hence the undernourishment. Furthermore, living in crowded areas, this has a tendency to increase the chances of disease as people are drinking from unsafe sources of water. People around the world are not aware of how immense this issue is and sometimes hesitant to believe the scale that it has risen to. Without understanding the people living at a disadvantage from the rest, there is no cure for the problem. Poverty is not only the problem of the poor, but the rich as well. If the wealthy becomes too concentrated and there are too many people at the low end who cant contribute to the cost of society (taxes t o maintain infrastructure for instance) then more of that burden must fall to the wealthy. The wealthy that derive their wealth by selling goods and services to a mass market will be affected if the market dries up because too many individuals are too poor to be able to buy the goods/services. With hints of the invisible hand playing a role in this, it’s possible that the economy might not adjust to the buyers and sellers. People suffering from poverty may become enraged at the disparity between themselves and the wealthy and may express that rage through a violent revolution and redistribution of wealth. Some wealthy individuals may feel concern about such a disparity and choose to give some of their wealth to better the condition of the poor or to help the poor find a way to prosperity. Poverty in the United States has long been a social, political, and human rights issue. Few people would say that it is not our moral duty, as social human beings to take care of those less fortunate than ourselves, to the best of our ability. These types of people have what is called a â€Å"libertarian†. There is really no specific definition of â€Å"libertarian†, but it is associates justice with liberty. In relation to the matter at hand, specifically poverty in America, libertarians are against taxing the affluent or forcing people to aid the starving and poor. One of the most influential libertarians of our time is Professor Robert Nozik. His theory of justice begins with the principle that all people have rights, which require that we refrain from interfering with others. Other than this we have no obligation to do anything positive for anyone else, and likewise, they have no obligation towards us. These rights are natural or inalienable because all humans have them and they do not come from any social or political institutions. These rights forbid us from interfering with a person’s liberty even if it would promote some general good, or prevent another’s rights from being violated. Overall, the general idea is that people have the liberty to live a life free from intervention of others, and can lead their life however they so choose. In addition, he says that if a person acquired their fortune or possessions without harming, defrauding, or violating the rights of any others, then it is morally permissible to use those things however one wishes. This includes wasting, willing, or endowing the possessions to someone else. Even though many people are dying from starvation and malnutrition, Nozik’s theory of justice states that one has no obligation to help those people. His theory is summarized as follows: 1. A person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of justice in acquisition is entitled to that holding. 2. A person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of justice in transfer, from someone else entitled to the holding, is entitled to the holding. 3. No one is entitled to a holding except by (repeated) applications of 1 and 2. Relating to poverty, libertarians feel that no matter how the actual distribution of economic holdings may look, if all involved are entitled to the holdings they possess, then the distribution is just. Although Nozik’s theory concentrates on the just of distribution, Rawl’s theory of the difference principle can be thought of as the similar concept. The main moral motivation for the Difference Principle is similar to that for strict equality. The overwhelming economic opinion though is that in the foreseeable future the possibility of earning greater income will bring forth greater productive effort. This will increase the total wealth of the economy and, under the Difference Principle, the wealth of the least advantaged (the poor). The inequalities consistent with the Difference Principle are only permitted so long as they do not compromise the fair value of the political liberties. So, for instance, very large wealth differentials may make it virtually impossible for poor people to be elected to political office or to have their political views represented. These inequalities of wealth, even if they increase the material position of the least advantaged group, may need to be reduced in order for the first principle to be implemented. The difference principle may be the solution to poverty in the near future, but sadly the idea of strict equality between individuals will be a difficult concept for people to grasp. Capitalism is a system designed to produce for private profit, not for public need. We have gotten as far as we have due to decision-making of corporate boardrooms and placing them under the democratic control of the majority that the economy can provide for our needs. To do that, we need to bring into public ownership the largest 500 corporations and financial institutions. If the assets of these giant companies were under our democratic control, then investment and resources could be democratically controlled by working-class people. Resources would be available to address our most pressing social problems and allocated to areas of most need. To achieve this means breaking from giving any support to the two big-business political parties the Republicans and Democrats. They are both fully implicated in creating the present mess we are in. We need to build a new political party to represent our interests as workers, the poor and young people, and which points a finger at the real villains, the super-rich and the capitalist system.

Speech And Language Therapy For Children

Speech And Language Therapy For Children The Speech and Language Therapy profession is arguably one of the most important in Irish healthcare today. Its combat against the prevalence of communication disorders in this country especially for young children up to five years of age, in their crucial development stage, is fundamental in enabling those that could not otherwise manage it themselves, participate normally in society. But the last decade has seen a steady rise in such cases accessing public speech and language therapy services and the resources are currently not meeting existing and future demand. In fact quite the opposite is happening; public resources managed by the HSE are in decline as cuts to HSE budgets have been a constant since the beginning of the recession. Waiting lists for the public services are at an all-time-high and demand for private services have risen as a consequence but overall, children with speech and language needs are in a state of neglect and these needs will become more complex and problematic the longer they wait. Introduction. There are a lot of problems in our health system today that are apparently being addressed by the concept of reform. But somewhere within this system in reform there is an immerging issue of pretty dire proportions. Communication in human beings is a fundamental and natural skill that shapes the very world we live in. To not be in possession of such a seemingly basic skill would to essentially, be left out of society. Hard to imagine, yet thousands of children in the country each year present with communication difficulties. Speech and Language Therapy addresses these difficulties and with great success however such difficulties left untreatedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ What is Speech and Language Therapy? Classified as a healthcare profession Speech and Language Therapy aims to assess, diagnose and manage those who have difficulties with their communication skills. Speech and Language Therapy enables those with such difficulties to achieve their full potential to communicate and therefore integrate properly into society. Children with speech and language issues are among a very common group that are at a risk of developmental, learning, behavioural and social difficulties. Between 50-90% of children aged three with communication deficiencies will continue to have difficulties throughout their childhood. (HSE.ie Speech and Language Therapy. 2013). Image www.arcspeech.ieSpeech and Language skills are vital to a childs development which happens through communication. Language forms the very basis of communication for which reading, writing, speaking and listening are all part of. The ability to communicate is crucial for children to communicate with their peers. Children with delayed language development entering their first year in school are at risk of not being able to access the school curriculum. (ARC Speech Language Therapy Clinic 2013). The key to a more successful outcome for communication disorders is early intervention. When Would a Child Need Speech and Language Therapy? Guidelines. There are general guidelines for parents who may suspect that their child might be in need of or may benefit from speech and language therapy. For example, if the child has difficulties understanding instructions compared to other children, is late in development of talking, has a hoarse voice, has a stammer or stutter, finds playing with peers challenging or is not interested in interacting with others or is 3 and there is difficulty understanding their speech. (Irish Association of Speech Language Therapists. 2013). Typical stages of speech and language development for parents to understand at what stage their child should be at are outlined in the table below. Figure : Typical Stages 6 to 9 months 9 to 12 months 12 to 15 months 15 to 18 months 18 to 24 months 2 to 3 years 3 to 4 years 4 to 5 years Babble a long string of syllables aloud Point and imitate. Say yes and no and shake head accordingly Understand and respond to simple instructions. Be able to say 6 to 20 words and understand even more. Have a range of up to 50 phrases. Ask for food and drink. Understood 50 to 75% of the time. 3 to 4 words together in a sentence. Understand opposites. Ask Why questions. Understood 80% of time. 6 word sentences. Recognise some words in books/signs. More complex sentences with few errors. (Catriona Lysaght Speech and Language Therapist. 2013). My Child is Not Following the Typical Stages. All children develop at different rates and a parent knows their child best (Catriona Lysaght 2013) but a parent whose child does not seem to follow or fit the typical development stages, should have reasonable cause for concern and talk to their G.P. who can form their own opinion and refer to a Speech and Language Therapist if necessary. Assessment. The very first step to the Speech and Language process is always the initial assessment in which to gauge the childs speech and language skills in relation to the typical stages of speech and language development. The assessment is child age and ability specific and the parent normally will have completed a questionnaire to give the therapist a good understanding of the childs skills. General Assessments. Some of the general things that the therapist assesses during the initial assessment may include: Figure : Assessments Speech Sounds The sounds that the child uses to make words and how the child uses those words themselves as part of their language. Oro-motor/Motor Speech The childs ability to move the mouth muscles for both speech and non-speech tasks. Receptive Language Skills The childs understanding of language used by others around them. Expressive Language Skills How the child uses words to expresses themselves. Fluency/Stuttering/Stammering The therapist examines the characteristics of the childs stammering. Feeding, Eating, Drinking and Swallowing (FEDS) Only for children with difficulty in the area, the therapist observes the childs eating to assess things like chewing skills, drooling and ability to feed independently. (Irish Association of Speech Language Therapists. 2013). Image www.spectrumhealth.ie Feedback. Once the initial assessment has been completed the therapist will give the parent verbal feedback on their findings and discuss the results of the assessment. A plan for moving forward to best suit the needs of the child is also discussed along with whether or not the need for a block of speech and language therapy is required. (Irish Association of Speech Language Therapists. 2013). Potential Issues. Speech and language issues for a child could also indicate other potential issues for that child that otherwise could not be determined at an earlier stage of their development. While most children who attend speech and language therapy benefit greatly from the intervention, for some parents it can mean the realisation on an underlying issue such as Autism or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Early Intervention. Prompt assessment and early intervention is critical if the long-term implications of a speech and language impairment is to be successfully reduced. (HSE.ie Health Service Executive Website Speech and Language Therapy. 2013). The earlier a child is assessed and diagnosed for treatment, the earlier that treatment can begin and the more successful the treatment will be. Children have a window up to the age of five of prime time for brain development and ideally any therapy treatment should be during this time. The older the child, the least effective the therapy is so early intervention is key. Image www.speechlanguagetherapyni.com Services: Public vs. Private. Public speech and language therapy services are free in Ireland but there are private alternatives for a family who wish to have their child seen to much more quickly than they could be seen to by the public service. Private services can also offer more regular, specialist services with more flexible hours and the associated costs are mostly covered by many of the health insurance companies but the outlay can be expensive overall. Parents who simply cannot afford to have their child seen privately have little alternative but to join the public waiting list. Speech and Language Therapy Demand in Ireland. It is estimated that over 5% of children will experience a Speech and Language delay which means that up to 6,000 children each year will have a specific speech or language impairment by the time they reach the school-going age. (Cluas.ie | Speech and Language Therapy| Language Development. 2013). With the increase on birth rates in Ireland today, this figure is likely to increase. The demand for speech and language therapy in Ireland has been steadily rising over the last decade as figure 3 shows: Figure : People Accessing Primary Speech and Language Therapy in Ireland (Department of Health, 2012) Speech and Language Resources in Ireland. Public resources for Speech and Language Therapy have drastically reduced since the beginning of the recession where recruitment bans across the Health Service have impacted heavily on the patient-to-therapist ratio that have seen waiting lists grow longer and longer up to 2 years in some areas (Irish Examiner 2013). Desperate parents have been flocking to their local TDs as a last resort and a number of them have pleaded on their constituents behalf in the Dail for a lifting of the ban specifically for Speech and Language Therapists e.g. (Patrick Nulty 2013). Therapists themselves are feeling the stresses and strains of the system where the long waiting lists are the main source of frustration (HSE.ie Speech and Language Therapist 2013). They are only too aware of the ticking clock that is the development window of each child on the list. All of this in contrast to the promises made by the Minister for Health in 2011 for radical reform across the health sector (James Reilly 2011). Conclusion. With the rising demand for speech and language therapy coupled with reductions in public services, the very foundation of speech and language development; early intervention has become a contradiction in terms. Paradoxically, the relatively small savings currently being made with recruitment embargos in the health service are very likely to be overshadowed by the future costs that will be associated with developing the children whose needs are not currently being met. This might make some economic sense to those who maintain that the funds simply are not there now to meet current demands but on a human level, its simply unjust to expect children to delay their own learning development for the sake of economics. Recommendations. Resources for speech and language therapy need to be restored to appropriate levels to handle current demand with priority given to the areas in most need; with the longest waiting lists and lower patient-to-therapist ratios. Similarly reforms within the health service, especially in this field are desperately required and long overdue. The Government and HSE must deliver on their reforms promised in 2011 to reduce waiting lists across the health system (James Reilly 2011).

Reinforced Concrete Frame Structure Advantages

Reinforced Concrete Frame Structure Advantages Reinforced concrete is one of the most widely used modern building materials. Concrete is artificial stone obtained by mixing cement, sand, and aggregates with water. Fresh concrete can be molded into almost any shape, which is an inherent advantage over other materials. Concrete become very popular after the invention of Portland cement in 19th century. However, its limited tension resistance prevented its wide use in building construction. To overcome this weakness, steel bard are embedded in concrete to form a composite material called reinforced concrete. Developments in the modern reinforced concrete design and construction practice were pioneered by European engineers in the late 19th century. At the present time, reinforced concrete is extensively used in a wide variety of engineering applications. The worldwide use of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing steel as well as the concrete ingredients. Unlike steel, concrete production does not require expensive manufacturing mills. Concrete construction, does, however, require a certain level of technology, expertise, and workmanship, particularly in the field during construction. In some cases, single-family houses or simple low-rise residential buildings are constructed without any engineering assistance. The extensive use of reinforced concrete construction, especially in developing countries, is due to its relatively low cost compared to other materials such as steel. The cost of construction changes with the region and strongly depends on the local practice. As an example, a unit area of a typical residential building made with reinforced concrete costs approximately $100/m ² in India, $250/m ² in Turkey, and $500/m ² in Italy. With the rapid growth of urban population in both the developing and the industrialized countries, reinforced concrete has become a material of choice for residential construction. Unfortunately, in many cases there is not the necessary level of expertise in design and construction. Design applications ranges from single-family buildings in countries like Colombia to high rises in China. Frequently, reinforced concrete construction is used in regions of high seismic risk. Introduction Steel reinforced concrete is a specific type that has had strong steel rebar or fibers added to it while wet, creating a very strong type of concrete that is able to withstand almost anything when it has dried. Because the result of using steel reinforced are so good for the strength of the building, most modern building today use steel reinforced concrete in the construction process. By adding thin steel bars to concrete can increase the strength of the concrete, making it better to use in variety of application. Today, many of the buildings located nations use reinforced concrete to make the buildings stronger and better able to in industrialized withstand the ravages of time and the weather. Reinforcing the concrete that will be used on the buildings add tensile strength to the concrete, making it much stronger and more flexible that regular concrete, which helps prevent cracking and breakage. Steel reinforced concrete can be used in a number of building applications, including fl oors, beams, supports, walls, and frames. Steel reinforced concrete is a concrete in which steel reinforcement bars, plates or fibers have been incorporated to build up a material that would otherwise be fragile. If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists compression but also bending, and other direct tensile action. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry. Reinforcing Steel Before placing reinforcing steel in forms, all form oiling should be completed. As mentioned earlier, oil or other coating should not contact the reinforcing steel in the formwork. Oil on reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the bars and the concrete. Use a piece of burlap to clean the bars of rust, scales, grease, mud or other foreign matter. A light film of rust or mild film is not objectionable. Rebars must be tied together for the bars tore main in a desired arrangement during pouring. Tying is also a means of keeping laps or splices in place. Laps allow bond stress to transfer the load from one bar, first into the concrete and then into the second bar. Advantages Behaviour Materials Concrete is a mixture of cement, stone aggregate, and small amount of water. Cement hydrates from microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid structure. Typical concrete mixes have low tensile strength. Steel, is placed in concrete, then it will not only resists compression but also bending, and other direct tensile actions. Steel also made the bonding of the aggregate in a concrete better. Physical characteristics of steel reinforced concrete: The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction. When the cement paste within the concrete hardens this conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. The alkaline chemical environment provided by calcium carbonate causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. Common Failure Modes of Steel Reinforced Concrete Conventional steel reinforced concrete can failed due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are as below: Mechanical failure Steel reinforced concrete may be considered to have failed when significant cracks occur. Cracking of the concrete section cannot be prevented. However, the size and location of the cracks can be limited and controlled by reinforcement, placement of control joints, the curing methodology and the mix design of the concrete. Cracking defects can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete then cracks either under excess loadings, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage when it cures. Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing of the concrete matrix, when stresses exceed its strength by yielding of the rebar or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar. Carbonation Carbonation or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. The water in the pores of Portland Cement Concrete is normally alkaline with a pH in the range of 12.5 to 13.5. This highly alkaline environment is one in which the embedded steel is passivated and is protected from corrosion. The carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the alkaline in the cement and makes the pore water more acidic, thus lowering the pH. Carbon dioxide will start to carbonate the cement in the concrete from the moment the object is made. This carbonation process will start at surface, then slowly move deeper and deeper into the concrete. If the object is cracked, the carbon dioxide in the air will be better able to penetrate into the concrete. Carbonated concrete only becomes a durability problem when there is also sufficient moisture and oxygen to cause electro-potential corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Chlorides Chlorides, including sodium chloride, can promote the corrosion of embedded steel rebar if present in sufficient concentration. So, only use fresh raw water or portable water for mixing concrete. It was once common for calcium chloride to be use as an admixture to promote rapid set-up of the concrete. It was also mistakenly believed that it would prevent freezing. Alkali Silica Reaction This is a reaction of amorphous silica sometimes present in the aggregates with alkali, for example from the cement pore solution. The silica reacts with the alkali to form a silicate in the Alkali silica reaction, this causes localize swelling which causes cracking. The conditions are: aggregate containing an alkaline reactive constituent, sufficiently availability of alkali ions and sufficient moisture. This phenomenon referred as concrete cancer. This reaction occurs independently of the presence of rebar. Conversion of High Alumina cement Resistant to weak acids and especially sulfates, this cement cures quickly and reaches very high durability and strength. However, it can lose strength with heat or time, especially when not properly cured. Sulfates Sulfates in the soil or in groundwater, in sufficient concentration, can react with the Portland cement in concrete causing the formation of expansive products which can lead to early failure of the structure. Corrosion and Passivation of steel reinforcement Exposed steel will corrode in moist atmospheres due to differences in the electrical potential on the steel surface forming anodic and cathodic sites. Concrete as an environment The environment provided by good quality concrete to steel reinforcement is one of high alkalinity due to the presence of the hydroxides of sodium, potassium and calcium produced during the hydration reactions. The bulk of surrounding concrete acts as a physical barrier to many of the steels aggressors. In such an environment steel is passive and any small breaks in its protective oxide film are soon repaired. However, the alkalinity of its surroundings are reduced, such as by neutralization are able to reach the steel then severe corrosion of the reinforcement can occur. This in turn can result in to staining of the concrete by rust and spalling of the cover due to the increase in volume associated with the conversion of iron to iron oxide. Factors affecting corrosion rates of steel in concrete The permeability of the concrete is important in determining the extent to which aggressive external substances can attack the steel. A thick concrete cover of low permeability is more likely to prevent chloride ions from an external source from reaching the steel and causing depassivation. Alternatives for the reinforcing phase Where an adequate depth of cover is difficult to achieve due to design considerations or where aggressive environments are expected such as in marine structures or bridge decks, additional protection may be required for the embedded steel. This may take many and varied forms and commercial interest in this field is strong. The steel reinforcement itself may be made more able to maintain its passivity by providing it with a protective coating. In extreme circumstances, solid stainless steel may be used, although the perceived additional cost restricts its use in all but the most specialized applications. The ideal situation There can be little doubt that the most effective way of protecting steel which is embedded in concrete is to provide it with an adequate depth of cover by high strength, low permeability concrete free from depassivating ions such as chlorides. However, in the real world, concrete is laid by the tone in all weathers and environments, exposed to industrial atmospheres, de-icing salts and seawater. The real situation Contaminated materials and poor workmanship are hard to avoid completely but by understanding the often complex chemical and electrochemical conditions that can exists it should be possible to develop ways of producing structures which will last long into the next century. Deterioration mechanisms The majority of reinforced concrete around the world performs adequately and gives few problems. A minority of structures have deteriorated due to either the action of aggressive components from the external environment or incompatibility of the mix constituents. Problems can arise as a result of incomplete or inaccurate site investigation, poor design, badly specified concrete, poor workmanship and a range of other factors. Stages of deterioration The mechanisms of deterioration are primarily chemico-physical in nature and occur in three discrete stages which are initiation, propagation, and deterioration. Modes of deterioration Deterioration may occur due to a number of mechanisms on which a large body of literature already exists. These include: Corrosion of reinforcement due to chloride ions, carbonation and change in the rebar reinforcement. Sulphate attack of concrete Salt recrystallisation Soft water or acid attack of concrete Alkali aggregate reaction Thermal incompatibility of concrete components Shrinkage Frost damage Depth of cover Inadequate cover is invariably associated with areas of high corrosion risk due to both carbonation and chloride ingress. By surveying the surface of a structure with an electromagnetic covermeter and producing a cover contour plot, the high-risk areas can be easily identified. A cover survey of newly completed structures would rapidly identify likely problem areas and permit additional protective measures to be taken. Cracked cover It should be remembered that reinforced concrete is intrinsically a cracked material because the steel stops the structure failing in tension but the brittle concrete cracks to the depth of the reinforcement. Only those cracks above a critical width which intersect the steel are liable to assist the corrosion processes. Cost Incurred After a period of unprecedented growth in prices during 2004, early date for 2005 indicates that the constructional steel market faces greater stability in the year ahead. Despite the price increases, demand for steel in the UK market remained at a very high level in 2004. One of the principal concerns for steel users was the availability of material, but the year ended with more steel in the supply chain than there had been at the beginning. Structural steel frame costs The leading benchmark cost unit for structural steelwork is its unit cost per tonne which includes the steel and the following elements: Connection design, detail drawing, fabrication, testing, treatment and delivery, offloading, erection These are calculated against the overall estimated tonnage for the building to generate an overall frame cost. Unit costs per tonne can vary enormously as there are a combination of factors that influence the overall cost. Care should be taken in considering each projects characteristics in arriving at a tonnage rate. This can be calculated either on the number of beams and column in a building or a weight per m ². The relative costs of each element will vary depending on the nature of the project. The tonnage rate could be divided as follows: Materials 30% Engineering 5% Fabrication 35% Priming 8% Delivery 2% Erection 20% The costs assume that the structural steelwork contractor will provide their own crane for all the projects with the exception of office buildings, for which the main contractor provides a tower crane. The early involvement of structural steelwork fabricators is the most effective way to value engineer cost savings into steelwork frame. For example, using more substantial and therefore more expensive steel columns in a design could remove the need for stiffeners. The steel may cost more but it is cheaper overall than paying for labour to fabricate and weld stiffeners to the column. If this value is adopted early enough in the project across the whole frame design, significant cost savings can be achieved. The cost of a frame system alone should not dictate the choice of frame for a project. Rather it should be just one of a number of issues that should be considered when making the choice of frame material. The recent rises in reinforcement and steel prices have increased frame costs but the difference between steel and concrete frame costs remains insignificant. A 50% increase in European steel prices during 2004 has left many in the construction industry reviewing design solutions that have a heavy reliance on steel. The impact of the steel price rises and found that the whole project costs for concrete framed buildings are marginally less than for steel framed buildings. Foundation costs The foundations typically represent approximately 3% of whole project initial cost. For the heaviest reinforced concrete solutions, the foundations will be more expensive, but this represents only a small cost and can be offset by using post-tensioned slabs, which are typically 15% lighter. Cladding costs The thinner the overall structural and services zone, the less the cladding costs. Given that cladding can represent up to 25% of the construction cost it is worth minimizing the cladding area. The minimum floor-to-floor height is almost always achieved with a concrete flat slab and separate services zone. Partitions Sealing and fire stopping at partitions heads is simplest with flat soffits. Significant savings of up to 10% of the partitions package can be made compared to the equivalent dry lining package abutting a profiled soffit with downstands. This can represent up to 4% of the frame cost. Services co-ordination/ Installation/ Adoptability The soffit of a concrete flat slab provides a zone for services distribution free of any downstand beams. This reduces coordination effort for the design team and therefore the risk of errors. It permits flexibility in design and allows coordination effort to be focused elsewhere. Services installation is simplest below a flat soffit. This permits maximum off site fabrication of services, higher quality of work and quicker installation. These advantages should be reflected in cost and value calculations. Indeed, ME contractors quote an additional cost of horizontal services distribution below a profited slab of up to 15%. Flat soffits also allowed greater future adaptability. Fire protection For concrete structures fire protection is generally not needed as the material has inherent fire resistance of up to four hours. This remove the time, cost and separate trade required to attend the site for fire protection. Vibration The inherent mass of concrete means that concrete floors generally meet vibration criteria at no extra cost and without any extra stiffening. For more stringent criteria, the additional cost to meet vibration criteria is small compared to other structural material. Exposed soffit A concrete structure has a high thermal mass. By exposing the soffits this can be utilized through fabric energy storage to reduce initial plant costs and ongoing operational costs. Furthermore, the cost of suspended ceilings can be reduced or eliminated. Conclusion As a conclusion, the majority of reinforced concrete structures show excellent durability and perform well over their design life. Adverse environments or poor construction practice can lead to corrosion of the reinforcing steel in concrete. The major mechanisms for corrosion are atmospheric carbon dioxide ingress and chloride attack from cast-in or diffused chlorides. The corrosion and deterioration mechanisms are essentially the same for both carbonation and chloride attack. Proper choice of materials, adequate cover to reinforcement, good quality concrete and attention to the environment during construction will enhance the durability of reinforced concrete structures. For cost incurred, concretes range of inherent benefits including fabric energy storage, fire resistance and sound installation means that concrete buildings tend to have lower operating costs and lower maintenance requirements. For structure subjected to aggressive environments, combinations of moisture, temperature and chlorides may result in the corrosion of reinforcing and prestressing steel, leading to the deterioration of concrete and loss of serviceability. One preferred solution which has assumed the status of cutting-edge research in many industrialized countries, is the use of fiber reinforced polymer rebars in concrete. Fiber concrete is also becoming an increasingly popular construction material due to its improved mechanical properties over non-reinforced concrete and its ability to enhance the mechanical performance of conventionally reinforced concrete. DEFINITION OF FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP), also known as fibre-reinforced plastic) are composite materials made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries. FRPs are typically organized in a laminate structure, such that each lamina (or flat layer) contains an arrangement of unidirectional fibres or woven fibre fabrics embedded within a thin layer of light polymer matrix material. The fibres, typically composed of carbon or glass, provide the strength and stiffness. The matrix, commonly made of polyester, Epoxy or Nylon, binds and protects the fibers from damage, and transfers the stresses between fibers. TYPES OF MATERIAL USED Polymer There are two main types of polymer used for resins: thermosets and thermoplastics. The thermosetting polymers used in the construction industry are the polyesters and the epoxides. There are many thermoplastic resins used in composite manufacture: polyolefins, polyamides, vinylic polymers, polyacetals, polysulphones, polycarbonates, polyphenylenes and polyimides. Fibre A wide range of amorphous and crystalline materials can be used as the fibre. In the construction industry the most common fibre used is glass fibre (there are 4 types of glass fibre: E-glass, AR-glass, A-glass and high strength glass). Carbon fibre, of which there are 3 types (Type I, II, III) can be used separately or in conjunction with the glass fibre as a hybrid to increase the stiffness of a structural member or the area within a structure, so that the stiffness exceeds the value possible using only glass fibre. Aramid fibres can be used instead of glass fibres to give increased stiffness to the composite. Today each of these fibers is used widely in industry for any applications that require plastics with specific strength or elastic qualities. Glass fibers are the most common across all industries, although carbon fiber and carbon fiber aramid composites are widely found in aerospace, automotive and sporting good applications. Additives For structural applications it is mandatory to achieve some degree of flame retardant. Fire retardants are usually incorporated in the resin itself or as an applied gel-coat. Fillers and pigments are also used in resins for a variety of purposes, the former principally to improve mechanical properties and the latter for appearance and protective action. APPLICATIONS OF FRP IN CONSTRUCTION There are three broad divisions into which applications of FRP in civil engineering can be classified: applications for new construction, repair and rehabilitation applications, and architectural applications. NEW CONSTRUCTION FRPs have been used widely by civil engineers in the design of new construction. Structures such as bridges and columns built completely out of FRP composites have demonstrated exceptional durability, and effective resistance to effects of environmental exposure. Pre-stressing tendons, reinforcing bars, grid reinforcement, and dowels are all examples of the many diverse applications of FRP in new structures. REPAIR AND REHABILITATION One of the most common uses for FRP involves the repair and rehabilitation of damaged or deteriorating structures. Several companies across the world are beginning to wrap damaged bridge piers to prevent collapse and steel-reinforced columns to improve the structural integrity and to prevent buckling of the reinforcement. ARCHITECTURAL Architects have also discovered the many applications for which FRP can be used. These include structures such as siding/cladding, roofing, flooring and partitions. DESIGN CONSIDERATION The strength properties of FRPs collectively make up one of the primary reasons for which civil engineers select them in the design of structures. A materials strength is governed by its ability to sustain a load without excessive deformation or failure. When an FRP specimen is tested in axial tension, the applied force per unit cross-sectional area (stress) is proportional to the ratio of change in a specimens length to its original length (strain). When the applied load is removed, FRP returns to its original shape or length. In other words, FRP responds linear-elastically to axial stress.   FRP allows the alignment the glass fibers of thermoplastics to suite specific design programs. Specifying the orientation of reinforcing fibers can increase the strength and resistance to deformation of the polymer. Glass reinforced polymers are strongest and most resistive to deforming forces when the polymers fibers are parallel to the force being exerted, and are weakest when the fibers are perpendicular. Thus this ability is can be an advantage or a limitation depending on the context of use. Weak spots of perpendicular fibers can be used for natural hinges and connections, but can also lead to material failure when production processes fail to properly orient the fibers parallel to expected forces. When forces are exerted perpendicular to the orientation of fibers, the strength and elasticity of the polymer is less than the matrix alone. In cast resin components made of glass reinforced polymers such as UP and EP, the orientation of fibers can be oriented in two-dimensional and three-dimensional weaves. This means that when forces are possibly perpendicular to one orientation, they are parallel to another orientation; this eliminates the potential for weak spots in the polymer. COST With the rising cost of nickel, FRP has become a very competitive material of construction. It is very competitive with acid brick or rubber-lined carbon steel and much less expensive than alloy-clad carbon steel. It is generally more expensive than resin-coated carbon steel but has a longer service life in most applications. Because FRP does not require insulation, FRP ductwork is actually less expensive than resin-coated carbon steel. ADVANTAGES OF FRP Composites offer the designer a combination of properties not available in traditional materials. It is possible to introduce the fibres in the polymer matrix at highly stressed regions in a certain position, direction and volume in order to obtain the maximum efficiency from the reinforcement, and then, within the same member to reduce the reinforcement to a minimal amount at regions of low stress value. FRP products are a cost effective alternative to steel in many of the harshest industrial environments. The advantages of FRP products over other materials include: Corrosion Resistant Fibre Reinforced Polymer materials are designed to operate in aggressive environments. Little or no coating or treating required. Low maintenance requirements Designed and engineered to last, composite structural materials are virtually maintenance free. Impact resistant Inherent flexibility allows products to resist impact and failure. Non-conductive and Non metallic FRP constructions provide additional safety by stopping sparks and potential electrical hazards. Fire Retardant FRP has a low flame spread index when tested under ASTM E-84 and meets self extinguishing requirements of ASTM D-635. High strength-to-weight ratio The strong, but light weight alternative where heavy lifting or access is an issue. Reduced installation time and cost FRP products are easier and lighter to install. Normal hand tools are used to make adjustments. Therefore FRP offers greater efficiency in construction compared with the more conventional materials. DISADVANTAGES OF FRP Structural failure can occur in FRP materials when tensile forces stretch the matrix more than the fibers, causing the material to shear at the interface between matrix and fibers, tensile forces near the end of the fibers exceed the tolerances of the matrix, separating the fibers from the matrix and tensile forces can also exceed the tolerances of the fibers causing the fibers themselves to fracture leading to material failure. A serious matter relating to the use of FRPs in civil applications is the lack of design codes and specifications. For nearly a decade now, researchers from Canada, Europe, and Japan have been collaborating their efforts in hope of developing such documents to provide guidance for engineers designing FRP structures. FRP plastics are liable to a number of the issues and concerns surrounding plastic waste disposal and recycling. Plastics pose a particular challenge in recycling processes because they are derived from polymers and monomers that often cannot be separated and returned to their virgin states, for this reason not all plastics can be recycled for re-use, in fact some estimates claim only 20% to 30% of plastics can be material recycled at all. In addition, fibers themselves are difficult to remove from the matrix and preserve for re-use means FRP amplify these challenges. FRP are inherently difficult to separate into base a material that is into fiber and matrix, and the matrix into separate usable plastic, polymers, and monomers. These are all concerns for environmentally informed design today, but it must be noted that plastics often offer savings in energy and economic savings in comparison to other materials, also with the advent of new more environmentally friendly matrices such as bioplastics and UV-degradable plastics, FRP will similarly gain environmental sensitivity. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL STEEL REINFORCED CONCRETE AND FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) CONCRETE No. Conventional Steel Reinforced Concrete Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Concrete 1 Definition: Steel reinforced concrete is a specific type that has had strong steel rebar added to it while wet, creating a very strong type of concrete that is able to withstand almost anything when it has dried. Definition: FRP concrete is composite materials made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres and typically organized in a laminate structure, such that each lamina (or flat layer) contains an arrangement of unidirectional fibres or woven fibre fabrics embedded within a thin layer of light polymer matrix material. 2 Corrosion of steel reinforcement: Exposed steel will corrode in moist atmospheres due to differences in the electrical potential on the steel surface forming anodic and cathodic sites. Corrosion Resistant: Fibre Reinforced Polymer materials are designed to operate in aggressive environments. Little or no coating or treating